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Tollund Man

Coordinates: 56°9′52″N 9°23′34″E / 56.16444°N 9.39278°E / 56.16444; 9.39278
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Tollund Man
The Tollund Man's preserved head
Bornc. 445–420 BCE
Diedc. 405–384 BCE (aged ~40)
present-day Tollund, Denmark
Cause of deathHanging (presumably ritual sacrifice)
Body discovered8 May 1950
Silkeborg, Denmark
56°9′52″N 9°23′34″E / 56.16444°N 9.39278°E / 56.16444; 9.39278
Height161 cm (5 ft 3 in)

The Tollund Man (died 405–384 BCE) is a naturally mummified corpse of a man who lived during the 5th century BCE, during the period characterised in Scandinavia as the Pre-Roman Iron Age.[1] He was found in 1950, preserved as a bog body, near Silkeborg on the Jutland peninsula in Denmark.[2] The man's physical features were so well preserved that he was mistaken for a recent murder victim.[3] Twelve years before his discovery, another bog body, Elling Woman, was found in the same bog.[4]

The cause of death has been determined to be by hanging. There is insufficient evidence to determine if the reason for the killing was a ritual sacrifice or a punitive execution.[5][6]

Discovery

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The remains of the Tollund Man shortly after his discovery in 1950

On 8 May 1950, peat cutters Viggo and Emil Hojgaard discovered a corpse in the peat layer of the Bjældskovdal peat bog, 12 km (7.5 mi) west of Silkeborg, Denmark,[3] which was so well preserved that they at first believed they had discovered a recent murder victim.

The Tollund Man lay 60 m (200 ft) away from firm ground, buried under 2.3 m (7 ft 7 in) of peat, his body arranged in a fetal position.[7] He wore a pointed skin cap of sheepskin and wool, fastened under his chin by a hide thong, and a smooth hide belt around his waist. Additionally, a noose made of plaited animal hide was drawn tight around his neck and trailed down his back.[2] Other than these, the body was naked. His hair was cropped so short as to be almost entirely hidden by his cap. There was short stubble (1 mm [0.039 in] in length) on his chin and upper lip, suggesting that he was usually clean-shaven, but had not shaved on the day of his death.[8] The Tollund Man was approximately 40 years old. The Tollund Man's last meal consisted of a porridge with barley, flax, wild weed seeds, and some fish.[9]

Scientific examination and conclusions

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Radiocarbon dating of Tollund Man indicated that he died circa 405–380 BCE.[10] The preserved tender soft tissues of his body are the consequence of the acid in the peat, along with the lack of oxygen underneath the surface and the cold climate of the Nordic countries. The acid in the peat, needed for the preservation of a human body, is caused by a bryophyte named Sphagnum. Sphagnum fights against degradation due to resistant phenolic compounds contained in their cell walls.[11] Due to the acidity of peat, bones are typically dissolved rather than preserved.

Scientists conducted an isotope analysis of the element strontium to measure the exact quantities to get an accurate idea of where he may have travelled before his death. They took samples from his femur and hair to compare. They were only able to measure up to a year because of his hair being short. The results contained only small differences in strontium isotope proportions, suggesting that he spent his final year in Denmark, and that he may have moved at least 30 kilometres (20 mi) in his last six months.[12]

Examinations and X-rays showed that the man's head was undamaged, and his heart, lungs and liver were well preserved. The Silkeborg Museum estimated his age as approximately 40 years and height at 1.61 m (5 ft 3 in), a relatively short stature even for the time. It is likely that the body had shrunk in the bog.

On the initial autopsy report in 1950, doctors concluded that Tollund Man died by hanging rather than strangulation.[13] The rope left visible furrows in the skin beneath his chin and at the sides of his neck. There was no mark, however, at the back of the neck where the knot of the noose would have been located. After a re-examination in 2002, forensic scientists found further evidence to support these initial findings.[14] Although the cervical vertebrae were undamaged (these vertebrae are often damaged as a result of hanging), radiography showed that the tongue was distended—an indication of death by hanging.[15]

The stomach and intestines were examined and tests were carried out on their contents.[16] Scientists identified the man's last meal as porridge or gruel made from grains and seeds, both cultivated and wild. Approximately 40 kinds of seeds were identified, but the porridge was primarily composed of four types: barley, flax, false flax (Camelina sativa) and knotgrass.[16] From the stage of digestion it was concluded that the man had eaten 12 to 24 hours prior to his death. Porridges were common for people of this time.[16] Because neither meat nor fresh fruit was found in the last meal, it is suggested that the meal was eaten in winter or early spring when these items were not available.[16]

Both feet and the right thumb, being well conserved by the peat, were also preserved in formalin for later examination. In 1976, the Danish police made a fingerprint analysis, making Tollund Man's thumbprint one of the oldest prints on record.[17]

Cause of death

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The reason for Tollund Man's death has not been definitively determined.[5] Some scholars believe the man was a ritual sacrifice because of the special treatment of the body: the arranged position of his body, the eyes and mouth being closed and the special meal that had been ingested.[5][18] However other scholars believe that he was possibly an execution[5] because Germanic tribes buried traitors under piles of sticks.[19]

Display

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The Tollund Man on display at Silkeborg Museum

The body is displayed at the Silkeborg Museum in Denmark, although only the head is original. Because conservation techniques for organic material were insufficiently advanced in the early 1950s for the entire body to be preserved, the forensic examiners suggested the head be severed and the rest of the body remain unpreserved. Subsequently, the body was desiccated and the tissue disappeared. In 1987, the Silkeborg Museum reconstructed the body using the skeletal remains as a base. As displayed today, the original head is attached to a replica of the body.[20]

Other bodies

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Further information: List of bog bodies § Denmark

In Denmark, more than 500 bog bodies and skeletal remains dating to the Iron Age have been recovered.[21] Specimens from Jutland include the relatively well-preserved Borremose bodies, Huldremose Woman, Grauballe Man on display at Moesgaard Museum near Aarhus, and the similarly conserved Haraldskær Woman. Approximately 30 of these bog bodies are housed and/or displayed in Danish museums for continued research.[21]

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Nobel Prize-winning Irish poet Seamus Heaney wrote a series of poems inspired by P. V. Glob's study of the mummified Iron Age bodies found in Jutland's peat bogs, finding contemporary political relevance in the relics of the ritualistic killings.[22] Heaney's poem "The Tollund Man", published in his Wintering Out collection, compares the ritual sacrifice to those who died in the sectarian violence of "the Troubles".[22] Heaney wrote an excerpt from the poem in the Tollund Man exhibit's guest book in 1973.[23]

British author Margaret Drabble, in her 1989 novel A Natural Curiosity, uses her characters' obsession with the Tollund Man to provide a satirical criticism of Margaret Thatcher's modern England.[24][25]

Tollund Man is featured in several songs: "Tollund Man" (1995) by the American folk band The Mountain Goats and "Curse of the Tollund Man" (2004) by the English rock band The Darkness.

Tollund Man was mentioned in the episode "Mummy in the Maze" of the American television series Bones[26] and was also mentioned in the 2016 film Sacrifice in which a bog body was found in the Shetland Islands.[27]

He is the subject of the novel Meet Me at the Museum by Anne Youngson in which the main characters bond through a shared fascination with the Tollund Man.[28]

Citations

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  1. ^ Lewis, Susan K. (2006). "Tollund Man". Public Broadcasting System – NOVA. Archived from the original on 18 November 2020. Retrieved 22 September 2007.
  2. ^ a b Glob, P. (2004). The Bog People: Iron-Age Man Preserved. New York: New York Review of Books. p. 304. ISBN 978-1-59017-090-8.
  3. ^ a b Silkeborg Public Library; Silkeborg Museum (2004). "A Body Appears". The Tollund Man – A Face from Prehistoric Denmark. Silkeborg Public Library. Archived from the original on 9 December 2013. Retrieved 22 September 2007.
  4. ^ "Violence in the Bogs" Archived 18 November 2012 at the Wayback Machine, Archaeological Institute of America
  5. ^ a b c d Green, Miranda (1998). "Humans as Ritual Victims in the Later Prehistory of Western Europe". Oxford Journal of Archaeology. 17 (2): 162–189.
  6. ^ Why did Tollund Man have to die?, Museum Silkeborg
  7. ^ "The discovery of Tollund Man". Museum Silkeborg. Archived from the original on 28 November 2020. Retrieved 16 February 2021.
  8. ^ Silkeborg Public Library; Silkeborg Museum (2004). "The Tollund Man: Hair and beard". Silkeborg Public Library. Archived from the original on 1 May 2012. Retrieved 10 October 2009.
  9. ^ Nielsen, Nina H.; Henriksen, Peter Steen; Mortensen, Morten Fischer; Enevold, Renée; Mortensen, Martin N.; Scavenius, Carsten; and Enghild, Jan J. (2021). "The last meal of Tollund Man: new analyses of his gut content". Antiquity. 95 (383): 1195–1212. doi:10.15184/aqy.2021.98. ISSN 0003-598X. S2CID 238030730.
  10. ^ Van Der Plicht, J.; Van Der Sanden, W.A.B; Aerts, A.T; Streurman, H.J (1 April 2004). "Dating bog bodies by means of 14C-AMS". Journal of Archaeological Science. 31 (4): 471–491. Bibcode:2004JArSc..31..471V. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.520.411. doi:10.1016/j.jas.2003.09.012.
  11. ^ Reece, Urry, Cain, Wasserman, Minorsky, Jackson. "L'importance écologique et économique des Bryophytes". Campbell Biologie 4th Edition (2012): p. 705, 17 October 2014.
  12. ^ Levine, Joshua (May 2017). "Europe's Famed Bog Bodies Are Starting to Reveal Their Secrets". Smithsonian Magazine. Archived from the original on 22 April 2021. Retrieved 22 April 2021.
  13. ^ Silkeborg Museum, The Tollund Man's Appearance Archived 2011-07-19 at the Wayback Machine, Silkeborg Museum and Amtscentret for Undervisning, Silkeborg Public Library, 2004
  14. ^ Silkeborg Museum, Latest Research Archived 2011-07-19 at the Wayback Machine, Silkeborg Museum and Amtscentret for Undervisning, Silkeborg Public Library, 2004
  15. ^ Silkeborg Museum, Was the Tollund Man Hanged? Archived 2011-07-19 at the Wayback Machine, Silkeborg Museum and Amtscentret for Undervisning, Silkeborg Public Library (SPL), 2004
  16. ^ a b c d Silkeborg Museum, The Last Meal Archived 2017-04-30 at the Wayback Machine, Silkeborg Museum and Amtscentret for Undervisning, Silkeborg Public Library, 2004
  17. ^ Silkeborg Public Library; Silkeborg Museum (2004). "Finger-Prints". The Tollund Man – A Face from Prehistoric Denmark. Silkeborg Public Library. Archived from the original on 23 September 2007. Retrieved 22 September 2007.
  18. ^ Hart, Edward, dir. Ghosts of Murdered Kings. NOVA. Prod. Edward Hart and Dan McCabe, PBS, 29 January 2014
  19. ^ Why did Tollund Man have to die?, Museum Silkeborg
  20. ^ Silkeborg Public Library; Silkeborg Museum (2004). "Preservation of the Tollund Man". The Tollund Man – A Face from Prehistoric Denmark. Silkeborg Public Library. Archived from the original on 4 March 2016. Retrieved 22 September 2007.
  21. ^ a b Dell'Amore, Christine (18 July 2014). "Who Were the Ancient Bog Mummies? Surprising New Clues". National Geographic. Archived from the original on 18 November 2020. Retrieved 13 March 2017.
  22. ^ a b O'Donoghue, Bernard (2009). The Cambridge Companion to Seamus Heaney. Cambridge University Press. pp. 194–196. ISBN 978-0-521-83882-5.
  23. ^ "The Nobel Prize Winner's Poem about the Tollund Man". The Tollund Man. Silkeborg Public Library. 2004. Archived from the original on 20 February 2016. Retrieved 20 November 2015.
  24. ^ Boxer, Sarah (2 June 1991). "A New Literary Hero: The Limp, Silent Type". The New York Times. Archived from the original on 5 October 2017. Retrieved 20 February 2017.
  25. ^ Sanders, Karin (2009). Bodies in the Bog and the Archaeological Imagination. University of Chicago Press. pp. 254–55. ISBN 978-0-226-73404-0.
  26. ^ Williams, Scott. "Mummy in the Maze". Bones. Dir. Marita Grabiak. Fox. 30 Oct. 2007. Web. 15 Nov. 2016.
  27. ^ Dillard, Clayton (25 April 2016). "Review: Sacrifice". slantmagazine.com. Slant Magazine.
  28. ^ McAlpin, Heller (7 August 2018). "Bonding Over Bog Bodies In 'Meet Me At The Museum'". npr.org. National Public Radio.

General sources

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Further reading

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Wikimedia Commons has media related to Tollundmanden.
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